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Functional notation support for common calculus methods.
EXAMPLES:
We illustrate each of the calculus functional functions.
sage: simplify(x - x)
0
sage: a = var('a')
sage: derivative(x^a + sin(x), x)
cos(x) + a*x^(a - 1)
sage: diff(x^a + sin(x), x)
cos(x) + a*x^(a - 1)
sage: derivative(x^a + sin(x), x)
cos(x) + a*x^(a - 1)
sage: integral(a*x*sin(x), x)
a*(sin(x) - x*cos(x))
sage: integrate(a*x*sin(x), x)
a*(sin(x) - x*cos(x))
sage: limit(a*sin(x)/x, x=0)
a
sage: taylor(a*sin(x)/x, x, 0, 4)
a - a*x^2/6 + a*x^4/120
sage: expand( (x-a)^3 )
x^3 - 3*a*x^2 + 3*a^2*x - a^3
sage: laplace( e^(x+a), x, a)
e^a/(a - 1)
sage: inverse_laplace( e^a/(a-1), x, a)
ilt(e^a/(a - 1), x, a)
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Simplify the expression $f$.
EXAMPLES:
We simplify the expression $i + x - x$.
sage: f = I + x - x; simplify(f)
I
In fact, printing $f$ yields the same thing -- i.e., the simplified form.
sage: f
I
Nonetheless $f$ and \code{simplify(f)} have a different type; one remembers
that it is constructed as a sum, and the other is really just the
simplified expression:
sage: type(f)
<class 'sage.calculus.calculus.SymbolicArithmetic'>
sage: type(simplify(f))
<class 'sage.calculus.calculus.SymbolicConstant'>
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The derivative of $f$.
Repeated differentation is supported by the syntax given in the
examples below.
ALIAS:
diff
EXAMPLES:
We differentiate a callable symbolic function:
sage: f(x,y) = x*y + sin(x^2) + e^(-x)
sage: f
(x, y) |--> x*y + sin(x^2) + e^(-x)
sage: derivative(f, x)
(x, y) |--> y + 2*x*cos(x^2) - e^(-x)
sage: derivative(f, y)
(x, y) |--> x
We differentiate a polynomial:
sage: t = polygen(QQ, 't')
sage: f = (1-t)^5; f
-t^5 + 5*t^4 - 10*t^3 + 10*t^2 - 5*t + 1
sage: derivative(f)
-5*t^4 + 20*t^3 - 30*t^2 + 20*t - 5
sage: derivative(f, t)
-5*t^4 + 20*t^3 - 30*t^2 + 20*t - 5
sage: derivative(f, t, t)
-20*t^3 + 60*t^2 - 60*t + 20
sage: derivative(f, t, 2)
-20*t^3 + 60*t^2 - 60*t + 20
sage: derivative(f, 2)
-20*t^3 + 60*t^2 - 60*t + 20
We differentiate a symbolic expression:
sage: var('a x')
(a, x)
sage: f = exp(sin(a - x^2))/x
sage: derivative(f, x)
-2*cos(x^2 - a)*e^(-sin(x^2 - a)) - e^(-sin(x^2 - a))/x^2
sage: derivative(f, a)
cos(x^2 - a)*e^(-sin(x^2 - a))/x
Syntax for repeated differentiation:
sage: R.<u, v> = PolynomialRing(QQ)
sage: f = u^4*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u)
4*u^3*v^5
sage: f.derivative(u) # can always use method notation too
4*u^3*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u, u)
12*u^2*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u, u, u)
24*u*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u, 3)
24*u*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u, v)
20*u^3*v^4
sage: derivative(f, u, 2, v)
60*u^2*v^4
sage: derivative(f, u, v, 2)
80*u^3*v^3
sage: derivative(f, [u, v, v])
80*u^3*v^3
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The derivative of $f$.
Repeated differentation is supported by the syntax given in the
examples below.
ALIAS:
diff
EXAMPLES:
We differentiate a callable symbolic function:
sage: f(x,y) = x*y + sin(x^2) + e^(-x)
sage: f
(x, y) |--> x*y + sin(x^2) + e^(-x)
sage: derivative(f, x)
(x, y) |--> y + 2*x*cos(x^2) - e^(-x)
sage: derivative(f, y)
(x, y) |--> x
We differentiate a polynomial:
sage: t = polygen(QQ, 't')
sage: f = (1-t)^5; f
-t^5 + 5*t^4 - 10*t^3 + 10*t^2 - 5*t + 1
sage: derivative(f)
-5*t^4 + 20*t^3 - 30*t^2 + 20*t - 5
sage: derivative(f, t)
-5*t^4 + 20*t^3 - 30*t^2 + 20*t - 5
sage: derivative(f, t, t)
-20*t^3 + 60*t^2 - 60*t + 20
sage: derivative(f, t, 2)
-20*t^3 + 60*t^2 - 60*t + 20
sage: derivative(f, 2)
-20*t^3 + 60*t^2 - 60*t + 20
We differentiate a symbolic expression:
sage: var('a x')
(a, x)
sage: f = exp(sin(a - x^2))/x
sage: derivative(f, x)
-2*cos(x^2 - a)*e^(-sin(x^2 - a)) - e^(-sin(x^2 - a))/x^2
sage: derivative(f, a)
cos(x^2 - a)*e^(-sin(x^2 - a))/x
Syntax for repeated differentiation:
sage: R.<u, v> = PolynomialRing(QQ)
sage: f = u^4*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u)
4*u^3*v^5
sage: f.derivative(u) # can always use method notation too
4*u^3*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u, u)
12*u^2*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u, u, u)
24*u*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u, 3)
24*u*v^5
sage: derivative(f, u, v)
20*u^3*v^4
sage: derivative(f, u, 2, v)
60*u^2*v^4
sage: derivative(f, u, v, 2)
80*u^3*v^3
sage: derivative(f, [u, v, v])
80*u^3*v^3
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The integral of $f$.
EXAMPLES:
sage: integral(sin(x), x)
-cos(x)
sage: integral(sin(x)^2, x, pi, 123*pi/2)
121*pi/4
sage: integral( sin(x), x, 0, pi)
2
We integrate a symbolic function:
sage: f(x,y,z) = x*y/z + sin(z)
sage: integral(f, z)
(x, y, z) |--> x*y*log(z) - cos(z)
sage: var('a,b')
(a, b)
sage: assume(b-a>0)
sage: integral( sin(x), x, a, b)
cos(a) - cos(b)
sage: forget()
sage: print integral(x/(x^3-1), x)
2 x + 1
2 arctan(-------)
log(x + x + 1) sqrt(3) log(x - 1)
- --------------- + ------------- + ----------
6 sqrt(3) 3
sage: print integral( exp(-x^2), x )
sqrt( pi) erf(x)
----------------
2
We define the Gaussian, plot and integrate it numerically and symbolically:
sage: f(x) = 1/(sqrt(2*pi)) * e^(-x^2/2)
sage: P = plot(f, -4, 4, hue=0.8, thickness=2)
sage: P.show(ymin=0, ymax=0.4)
sage: numerical_integral(f, -4, 4) # random output
(0.99993665751633376, 1.1101527003413533e-14)
sage: integrate(f, x)
x |--> erf(x/sqrt(2))/2
You can have \sage calculate multiple integrals. For example,
consider the function $exp(y^2)$ on the region between the lines
$x=y$, $x=1$, and $y=0$. We find the value of the integral on
this region using the command:
sage: area = integral(integral(exp(y^2),x,0,y),y,0,1); area
e/2 - 1/2
sage: float(area)
0.85914091422952255
We compute the line integral of $\sin(x)$ along the arc of the curve
$x=y^4$ from $(1,-1)$ to $(1,1)$:
sage: t = var('t')
sage: (x,y) = (t^4,t)
sage: (dx,dy) = (diff(x,t), diff(y,t))
sage: integral(sin(x)*dx, t,-1, 1)
0
sage: restore('x,y') # restore the symbolic variables x and y
\sage is unable to do anything with the following integral:
sage: print integral( exp(-x^2)*log(x), x )
/ 2
[ - x
I e log(x) dx
]
/
\sage does not know how to compute this integral either.
sage: print integral( exp(-x^2)*ln(x), x, 0, oo)
inf
/ 2
[ - x
I e log(x) dx
]
/
0
This definite integral is easy:
sage: integral( ln(x)/x, x, 1, 2)
log(2)^2/2
\sage can't do this elliptic integral (yet):
sage: integral(1/sqrt(2*t^4 - 3*t^2 - 2), t, 2, 3)
integrate(1/sqrt(2*t^4 - 3*t^2 - 2), t, 2, 3)
A double integral:
sage: y = var('y')
sage: integral(integral(x*y^2, x, 0, y), y, -2, 2)
32/5
This illustrates using assumptions:
sage: integral(abs(x), x, 0, 5)
25/2
sage: integral(abs(x), x, 0, a)
integrate(abs(x), x, 0, a)
sage: assume(a>0)
sage: integral(abs(x), x, 0, a)
a^2/2
sage: forget() # forget the assumptions.
We integrate and differentiate a huge mess:
sage: f = (x^2-1+3*(1+x^2)^(1/3))/(1+x^2)^(2/3)*x/(x^2+2)^2
sage: g = integral(f, x)
sage: h = f - diff(g, x)
sage: [float(h(i)) for i in range(5)] # random low-order bits
[0.0, -1.1102230246251565e-16, -8.3266726846886741e-17, -4.163336342344337e-17, -6.9388939039072284e-17]
sage: bool(h == 0)
True
|
The integral of $f$.
EXAMPLES:
sage: integral(sin(x), x)
-cos(x)
sage: integral(sin(x)^2, x, pi, 123*pi/2)
121*pi/4
sage: integral( sin(x), x, 0, pi)
2
We integrate a symbolic function:
sage: f(x,y,z) = x*y/z + sin(z)
sage: integral(f, z)
(x, y, z) |--> x*y*log(z) - cos(z)
sage: var('a,b')
(a, b)
sage: assume(b-a>0)
sage: integral( sin(x), x, a, b)
cos(a) - cos(b)
sage: forget()
sage: print integral(x/(x^3-1), x)
2 x + 1
2 arctan(-------)
log(x + x + 1) sqrt(3) log(x - 1)
- --------------- + ------------- + ----------
6 sqrt(3) 3
sage: print integral( exp(-x^2), x )
sqrt( pi) erf(x)
----------------
2
We define the Gaussian, plot and integrate it numerically and symbolically:
sage: f(x) = 1/(sqrt(2*pi)) * e^(-x^2/2)
sage: P = plot(f, -4, 4, hue=0.8, thickness=2)
sage: P.show(ymin=0, ymax=0.4)
sage: numerical_integral(f, -4, 4) # random output
(0.99993665751633376, 1.1101527003413533e-14)
sage: integrate(f, x)
x |--> erf(x/sqrt(2))/2
You can have \sage calculate multiple integrals. For example,
consider the function $exp(y^2)$ on the region between the lines
$x=y$, $x=1$, and $y=0$. We find the value of the integral on
this region using the command:
sage: area = integral(integral(exp(y^2),x,0,y),y,0,1); area
e/2 - 1/2
sage: float(area)
0.85914091422952255
We compute the line integral of $\sin(x)$ along the arc of the curve
$x=y^4$ from $(1,-1)$ to $(1,1)$:
sage: t = var('t')
sage: (x,y) = (t^4,t)
sage: (dx,dy) = (diff(x,t), diff(y,t))
sage: integral(sin(x)*dx, t,-1, 1)
0
sage: restore('x,y') # restore the symbolic variables x and y
\sage is unable to do anything with the following integral:
sage: print integral( exp(-x^2)*log(x), x )
/ 2
[ - x
I e log(x) dx
]
/
\sage does not know how to compute this integral either.
sage: print integral( exp(-x^2)*ln(x), x, 0, oo)
inf
/ 2
[ - x
I e log(x) dx
]
/
0
This definite integral is easy:
sage: integral( ln(x)/x, x, 1, 2)
log(2)^2/2
\sage can't do this elliptic integral (yet):
sage: integral(1/sqrt(2*t^4 - 3*t^2 - 2), t, 2, 3)
integrate(1/sqrt(2*t^4 - 3*t^2 - 2), t, 2, 3)
A double integral:
sage: y = var('y')
sage: integral(integral(x*y^2, x, 0, y), y, -2, 2)
32/5
This illustrates using assumptions:
sage: integral(abs(x), x, 0, 5)
25/2
sage: integral(abs(x), x, 0, a)
integrate(abs(x), x, 0, a)
sage: assume(a>0)
sage: integral(abs(x), x, 0, a)
a^2/2
sage: forget() # forget the assumptions.
We integrate and differentiate a huge mess:
sage: f = (x^2-1+3*(1+x^2)^(1/3))/(1+x^2)^(2/3)*x/(x^2+2)^2
sage: g = integral(f, x)
sage: h = f - diff(g, x)
sage: [float(h(i)) for i in range(5)] # random low-order bits
[0.0, -1.1102230246251565e-16, -8.3266726846886741e-17, -4.163336342344337e-17, -6.9388939039072284e-17]
sage: bool(h == 0)
True
|
Return the limit as the variable $v$ approaches $a$ from the
given direction.
\begin{verbatim}
limit(expr, x = a)
limit(expr, x = a, dir='above')
\end{verbatim}
INPUT:
dir -- (default: None); dir may have the value `plus' (or 'above')
for a limit from above, `minus' (or 'below') for a limit from
below, or may be omitted (implying a two-sided
limit is to be computed).
taylor -- (default: False); if True, use Taylor series, which
allows more integrals to be computed (but may also crash
in some obscure cases due to bugs in Maxima).
**argv -- 1 named parameter
ALIAS: You can also use lim instead of limit.
EXAMPLES:
sage: limit(sin(x)/x, x=0)
1
sage: limit(exp(x), x=oo)
+Infinity
sage: lim(exp(x), x=-oo)
0
sage: lim(1/x, x=0)
und
sage: limit(sqrt(x^2+x+1)+x, taylor=True, x=-oo)
-1/2
sage: limit((tan(sin(x)) - sin(tan(x)))/x^7, taylor=True, x=0)
1/30
\sage does not know how to do this limit (which is 0),
so it returns it unevaluated:
sage: lim(exp(x^2)*(1-erf(x)), x=infinity)
limit(e^x^2 - e^x^2*erf(x), x, +Infinity)
|
Return the limit as the variable $v$ approaches $a$ from the
given direction.
\begin{verbatim}
limit(expr, x = a)
limit(expr, x = a, dir='above')
\end{verbatim}
INPUT:
dir -- (default: None); dir may have the value `plus' (or 'above')
for a limit from above, `minus' (or 'below') for a limit from
below, or may be omitted (implying a two-sided
limit is to be computed).
taylor -- (default: False); if True, use Taylor series, which
allows more integrals to be computed (but may also crash
in some obscure cases due to bugs in Maxima).
**argv -- 1 named parameter
ALIAS: You can also use lim instead of limit.
EXAMPLES:
sage: limit(sin(x)/x, x=0)
1
sage: limit(exp(x), x=oo)
+Infinity
sage: lim(exp(x), x=-oo)
0
sage: lim(1/x, x=0)
und
sage: limit(sqrt(x^2+x+1)+x, taylor=True, x=-oo)
-1/2
sage: limit((tan(sin(x)) - sin(tan(x)))/x^7, taylor=True, x=0)
1/30
\sage does not know how to do this limit (which is 0),
so it returns it unevaluated:
sage: lim(exp(x^2)*(1-erf(x)), x=infinity)
limit(e^x^2 - e^x^2*erf(x), x, +Infinity)
|
Expands self in a truncated Taylor or Laurent series in the
variable $v$ around the point $a$, containing terms through $(x - a)^n$.
INPUT:
v -- variable
a -- number
n -- integer
EXAMPLES:
sage: var('x,k,n')
(x, k, n)
sage: taylor (sqrt (1 - k^2*sin(x)^2), x, 0, 6)
1 - k^2*x^2/2 - (3*k^4 - 4*k^2)*x^4/24 - (45*k^6 - 60*k^4 + 16*k^2)*x^6/720
sage: taylor ((x + 1)^n, x, 0, 4)
1 + n*x + (n^2 - n)*x^2/2 + (n^3 - 3*n^2 + 2*n)*x^3/6 + (n^4 - 6*n^3 + 11*n^2 - 6*n)*x^4/24
|
EXAMPLES:
sage: a = (1+I)*(2-sqrt(3)*I); a
(I + 1)*(2 - sqrt(3)*I)
sage: expand(a)
-sqrt(3)*I + 2*I + sqrt(3) + 2
sage: a = (x-1)*(x^2 - 1); a
(x - 1)*(x^2 - 1)
sage: expand(a)
x^3 - x^2 - x + 1
You can also use expand on polynomial, integer, and other
factorizations:
sage: x = polygen(ZZ)
sage: F = factor(x^12 - 1); F
(x - 1) * (x + 1) * (x^2 - x + 1) * (x^2 + 1) * (x^2 + x + 1) * (x^4 - x^2 + 1)
sage: expand(F)
x^12 - 1
sage: F.expand()
x^12 - 1
sage: F = factor(2007); F
3^2 * 223
sage: expand(F)
2007
Note: If you want to compute the expanded form of a polynomial
arithmetic operation quickly and the coefficients of the polynomial
all lie in some ring, e.g., the integers, it is vastly faster to
create a polynomial ring and do the arithmetic there.
sage: x = polygen(ZZ) # polynomial over a given base ring.
sage: f = sum(x^n for n in range(5))
sage: f*f # much faster, even if the degree is huge
x^8 + 2*x^7 + 3*x^6 + 4*x^5 + 5*x^4 + 4*x^3 + 3*x^2 + 2*x + 1
|
Attempts to compute and return the Laplace transform of \code{self}
with respect to the variable $t$ and transform parameter $s$. If
this function cannot find a solution, a delayed function is returned.
The function that is returned may be be viewed as a function of $s$.
EXAMPLES:
sage: var('a,s,t')
(a, s, t)
sage: f = exp (2*t + a) * sin(t) * t; f
t*e^(2*t + a)*sin(t)
sage: L = laplace(f, t, s); L
e^a*(2*s - 4)/(s^2 - 4*s + 5)^2
sage: inverse_laplace(L, s, t)
t*e^(2*t + a)*sin(t)
Unable to compute solution:
sage: laplace(1/s, s, t)
laplace(1/s, s, t)
|
Attempts to compute and return the inverse Laplace transform of
\code{self} with respect to the variable $t$ and transform parameter $s$. If
this function cannot find a solution, a delayed function is returned, which
is called \code{ilt}.
EXAMPLES:
sage: f(t) = t*cos(t)
sage: s = var('s')
sage: L = laplace(f, t, s); L
t |--> 2*s^2/(s^2 + 1)^2 - 1/(s^2 + 1)
sage: inverse_laplace(L, s, t)
t |--> t*cos(t)
sage: print inverse_laplace(1/(s^3+1), s, t)
sqrt(3) t sqrt(3) t
sin(---------) cos(---------) - t
t/2 2 2 e
e (-------------- - --------------) + -----
sqrt(3) 3 3
No explicit inverse Laplace transform, so one is returned formally as a function \code{ilt}.
sage: inverse_laplace(cos(s), s, t)
ilt(cos(s), s, t)
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